DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERTOR-U. S, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR 




THE PRODUCTION 


op 

STEEL-HARDENING METALS 

• 'Tj,. •*' -y v 

INCLUDING 

NICKEL AND COBALT, CHROMIUM, TUNGSTEN, MOLYBDENUM, 
VANADIUM, TITANIUM, AND URANIUM 


IN 

19 0 3 


By JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 



EXTRACT FROM MINERAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES, CALENDAR 
YEAR 1903: DAVID T. DAY, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF 
MINING AND MINERAL RESOURCES 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

19 04 




^ ■-* . 


V, 




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THE PRODUCTION OF STEEL-HARDENING METALS, INCLUDING 
NICKEL AND COBALT, CHROMIUM, TUNGSTEN, MOLYB¬ 
DENUM, VANADIUM, TITANIUM, AND 
URANIUM, IN 1903 


JOSEPH HYDE PRATT 


10583—04 - 1 


1 












CONTENTS 


Page. 

Introduction. 5 

Manganese steel. 7 

Nickel and cobalt. 7 

Nickel steel. 7 

Cobalt steel. 11 

Sources of supply. 11 

Production. 13 

Canadian production. 14 

Imports. 15 

Exports. 17 

Foreign production. 17 

Chromium. 18 

Chromium steel. 18 

Other uses of chromite. 22 

Production. 22 

Imports. 23 

Canadian production. 24 

Tungsten. 24 

Tungsten steel. 25 

Production . 27 

Imports. 27 

Molybdenum. 27 

Production. 28 

Uranium and vanadium. 28 

Vanadium steel. 28 

Uranium. 29 

Production. 29 

Imports. 29 

Titanium. 29 


3 
























































I . I g \ I • • 


















































THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


By Joseph Hyde Pratt. 


INTRODUCTION. 

There are included under the head of steel-hardening metals, nickel 
and cobalt, chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, and 
uranium, which are named in the order of the importance of then- 
production and use for steel-hardening purposes. In this list manga¬ 
nese would naturally be included, but on account of its very extensive 
production and very large use in the purification of steel it is treated 
separately. 

These metals are not added to the steel to cause chemical reactions 
to take place, by which harmful ingredients are made to go into the 
, slag or to pass off as gases, as is the case in the use of ferrosilicon or 
ferromanganese (spiegeleisen), which are added to the furnace in the 
original manufacture of the steel. These other ferro allo}^s are not 
added until after the steel has been manufactured, and their use is as a 
physical addition to the manufactured steel for the physical benefits that 
they confer upon it, and hence they accomplish their purpose in a man¬ 
ner entirely different from that of the ferrosilicon or ferromanganese. 

The special steels resulting from these additions vary among them¬ 
selves, having individual properties of tensile strength and elastic limit, 
of conductivity, heat, and electricity, of magnetic capacity, and of 
resistance to impact, whether as shell or as armor plate. It was only 
about twenty years ago that the first of these metals, nickel, began to 
be used to any extent for the purpose of hardening steel, but since 
their introduction their use for this purpose has continued to increase 
steadily. Experiments are still being carried on with some of these 
metals in order to determine their actual commercial value with 
regard to the qualities that they impart to steel. In the arts it is 
the ferro alloy of these various metals that is first prepared and is then 
introduced in the required quantity into the manufactured steel, but 
this ferro allo} T is never added to the molten mass during the manu¬ 
facture of the steel. All these metals give characteristic and distinct 
properties to steel, but in all cases the principal quality is the increase 
in the hardness and the toughness of the resulting steel. Some of the 

5 




6 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


metals—as nickel, chromium, and tungsten—are now entirely beyond 
the experimental stage and are well established in the commercial 
world as definite steel-hardening metals, and new uses are being con¬ 
stantly devised for the different steels, which are causing a constant 
increase in their production. Others, as molybdenum and vanadium, 
though they have been proved to give certain positive values to steel, 
have not been utilized to any large extent as yet in the manufacture of 
molybdenum or vanadium steel, partly on account of the high cost of 
the ores containing these metals. Titanium and uranium are still in 
the experimental stage; and, although a good deal has been written as 
to the value of titanium as an alloy with steel, there is at the present 
time very little if any of it used in the manufacture of a commercial 
steel. 

Since the introduction of the electric furnace and the consequent 
methods that have been devised for reducing ores, it has become pos¬ 
sible to obtain these ferro alloys directly from the ores by reducing 
them in the electric furnace, and hence experiments have been con¬ 
ducted on a much larger scale than formerl} T . 

The prices of the various ferro alloys vary considerably. Ferro- 
chroine in December, 1903, was quoted at $120 to $225 per long ton 
of 2,210 pounds, cost, insurance, and freight, New York, on the basis 
of 60 per cent, with variations up and down at $1.75 per unit. Ferro- 
tungsten was quoted at 10 cents per pound, or $896 per ton, on 100 per 
cent, cost, insurance, and freight, New York. Ferromolybdenum was 
quoted from $1.50 to $2.50 per pound, or $3,360 to $5,600 per ton, on 
100 per cent, cost, insurance, and freight, New York; in Ma}^ 1901, 
this had dropped to $1.25 per pound on 100 per cent, cost, insurance, 
and freight, New York. Ferrovanadium was quoted at $7.50 per 
pound, or $16,800 per ton, on 100 per cent, in the English market, and 
$ 6.10 per pound in the French market; for ton lots the price has been 
quoted as low as $1.50 per pound. Ferromanganese has, during the 
last two or three }^ears, been very steady, and on contract, 100 -ton lots 
and over, was quoted at $50 per ton, duty paid, with freight paid east 
of the Mississippi liiver. In May, 1901, this price had dropped to $11 
per ton. Ferronickel allo}^ and metallic nickel vary from 50 to 56 
cents per pound for the nickel content. 

The minerals which form the source of these metals are as follows: 
Nickel and cobalt are obtained from nickeliferous pyrrhotite, genthite, 
garnierite, and a nickeliferous lead ore such as is found at Mine La- 
motte, Mo. Chromium is obtained exclusively from the mineral 
chromite. Tungsten is obtained from the three minerals, wolfram¬ 
ite, hiibnerite, and scheelite. Molybdenum is obtained chief! 3 ^ from 
molybdenite, with smaller amounts from wulfenite. Vanadium is 
usually found associated with uranium, and is obtained from carnot- 
ite and in smaller quantity from vanadinite. Uranium is obtained 


THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


7 


chiefly from the two minerals carnotite and uraninite (pitchblende). 
Titanium is found chiefly as ilmenite (ferrous titanate) and rutile 
(titanium oxide). 

MANGANESE STEEL. 

Besides the use of ferromanganese for the chemical effect which it 
produces in the manufacture of steel in eliminating injurious sub¬ 
stances, it is also used in the production of a special steel which pos¬ 
sesses to a considerable degree combined hardness and toughness. 
Such steel contains from 0.8 to 1£ per cent of carbon and about 12 
per cent of manganese and is known as “Hadfield manganese steel.” 
If only 1.5 per cent of manganese is added, the steel is very brittle, 
and the further addition increases this brittleness until the quantity of 
manganese has reached 4 to 5.5 per cent, when the steel can be pul¬ 
verized under the hammer. With a further increase, however, of the 
quantity of manganese, the steel becomes ductile and very hard, reach¬ 
ing its maximum degree of these qualities with 12 per cent of manga¬ 
nese. The ductility of the steel is brought out by sudden cooling, a 
process the opposite of that used for carbon steel. These properties 
of manganese steel make it especially adapted for use in the manu¬ 
facture of rock-crushing machinery, safes, and mine car wheels. 

NICKEL ANTE COBALT. 

The two metals, nickel and cobalt, are treated together for the 
reason that nearly all of the ores that contain one of these metals con 
tain also a small percentage of the other, and in the reduction of the 
ores both nickel and cobalt go into the matte which is afterwards 
refined. 

NICKEL STEEL. 

Nickel finds its largest use in the manufacture of special nickel and 
nickel-chromium steels, and the use of these steels for various pur¬ 
poses in the arts is constantly increasing. The greatest quantity of 
nickel steel is used in the manufacture of armor plate, either with or 
without the addition of chromium. There is probably no armor or 
protective-deck plate made which does not contain from 3 up to 5 per¬ 
cent of nickel. Nickel steel is also used for the manufacture of 
ammunition hoists, communication tubes, and turrets on battle ships, 
and for gun shields and armor. 

The properties of nickel steel or nickel-chromium steel that make it 
especial^ adapted for these purposes are its hardness and great tensile 
strength, combined with great ductility and a very high limit of elas¬ 
ticity. One of the strongest points in favor of a nickel-steel armor 
plate is that when it is perforated by a projectile it does not crack. 
The Krupp steel, which represents in composition about the universal 


8 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


armor-plate steel, contains, approximately, 3.5 per cent of nickel, 1.5 
per cent of chromium, and 0.25 per cent of carbon. 

Another use for nickel steel that is gradually increasing is the 
manufacture of nickel-steel rails. During 1903 there were over 11,000 
tons of these rails manufactured, which were used by the Pennsylva¬ 


nia, the Baltimore and Ohio, the New York Central, the Bessemer 
and Lake Erie, the Erie, and the Chesapeake and Ohio railroads. 
These orders for nickel-steel rails resulted from the comparison of 
nickel-steel and carbon-steel rails in their resistance to wear- during 
the five months’ trial of the nickel-steel rails that were used on the 
horseshoe curve of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The advantages that 
are claimed for the nickel-steel rail are its increased resistance to 
abrasion and its higher elastic limit, which increases the value of the 
rail as a girder. On sharp curves it has been estimated that a nickel- 
steel rail will outlast four ordinary rails. 

In regard to the comparative cost of nickel-steel and carbon-steel 
rails an interesting comparison has been made by Mr. John McLeod, 
which may be summarized as follows: 


Comparative cost of nickel-steel and carbon-steel rails. 



Nickel-steel 

rails. 

Carbon-steel 

rails. 

Cost of the tonnage of rails necessary to maintain a certain curve for 
a given period. 

a $56. 00 

1>$84.00 

One ton of rails made of 3| per cent nickel steel contains 78.4 pounds 
of nickel which, at 20 cents per pound, equals a credit of. 

15.68 

a 16.00 


Credit for scrap rails. 

b 48. 00 

Total credit. 

31.68 

48.00 

Gross cost (as above). 

56.00 

31.68 

84.00 

48.00 

Total credit (as above). 

Net cost. 

24.32 

36.00 



«lton. b 3 tons. 


Nickel steel has also been largely adopted for forgings in large 
engines, particularly marine engines, and it is understood that this is 
now the standard material for this purpose in the United States Navy. 
There is a very great variety of these forgings and drop forgings, 
which include the axles and certain other parts of automobiles, shaft¬ 
ing and crank shafts for Government and merchant-marine engines 
and stationery engines, for locomotive forgings, the last including 
axles, connecting rods, piston rods, crank pins, link pins, and pedestal 
cap bolts, and for sea-water pumps. 

Another important application that is being tried with nickel steel 
is in the manufacture of wire cables, and during the last year such 
cables have been made by the American Steel and Wire Company, but 


a Proc. Am. Soc. for testing materials, vol. 3, 1903. Reprint, p. 26. 































THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


9 


no comparison can as yet be made between them and the ordinary 
carbon-steel cables with respect to their wearing qualities. 

In the manufacture of electrical apparatus nickel steel is beginning 
to be used in considerable quantity. The properties of this steel 
which make it especially valuable for such uses are, first, its high ten¬ 
sile strength and elastic limit, and, second, its high permeability at 
high inductions. Thus steel containing from 3 to 4 per cent of nickel 
has a lower permeability at low inductions than a steel without the 
nickel, but at the higher inductions the permeability is higher. A nota¬ 
ble instance of the use of this material is in the field rings of the 5,000- 
horsepower generators built by the Westinghouse Electric and Manu¬ 
facturing Company for the Niagara Falls Power Company. These 
field rings require very high tensile strength and elastic limit, and in 
order to reduce the quantity of material it is desirable that they have 
high permeability at high inductions. This result was secured by using 
a nickel steel containing approximately 3.75 per cent of nickel. Steel 
containing approximately 25 per cent of nickel is nonmagnetic and has 
a very low resistance temperature coefficient. This property is occa¬ 
sionally of value where a nonmagnetic material of very high tensile 
strength is required. The high electrical resistance of nickel steel of 
this quality, together with its low temperature coefficient, makes it 
valuable for electrical resistance work where a small change in the 
resistance due to change in temperature is desirable. The main objection 
to using nickel steel for this purpose is the mechanical defects that 
are often found in wire that is drawn from this quality of nickel steel. 

For rock drills and other rock-working machinery nickel steel is 
used in the manufacture of the forgings which are subjected to repeated 
and violent shocks. The nickel content of the steel used in these forg¬ 
ings is approximately 3 per cent, with about 40 per cent of carbon. 
The rock drills or bits are made for the most part of ordinary crucible 
cast steel which has been hardened and tempered. There is a field 
for investigation here in respect to the value of some of the special 
steels in the manufacture of rock-drill steels or bits. 

A nickel-chrome steel is now being made which is used to some extent 
in the manufacture of tools. 

Nickel steel in the form of wire has been used quite extensively and 
for many purposes—for wet mines, torpedo-defense netting, electric- 
lamp wire, umbrella wire, corset wire, etc.—where a noncorrosive wire 
is especial^ desired. When a low coefficient of expansion is desired— 
as in the manufacture of armored glass, in the mounting of lenses, 
mirrors, lever tubes, balances for clocks, weighing machines, etc.— 
nickel steel gives good satisfaction. For special springs, both in the 
form of wire and flats, a high carbon nickel steel has been introduced 
to a considerable extent. Nickel steel is also being used in the manu- 


10583-04-2 









10 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


facture of dies and shoes for stamp mills, for cutlery, tableware, 
harness mountings, etc. 


Nickel steels containing from 25 to 30 per cent nickel are used abroad 
to some considerable extent for boiler and condenser tubes and are now 
being introduced into this country. The striking characteristic of 
these steels is their resistance to corrosion either by fresh, salt, or acid 
waters, by heat, and b} r superheated steam. The first commercial 
manufacture of high nickel-steel tubes began in France in 1898, and 
was followed in Germany in 1899; but it was not until February, 1903, 
that these tubes were made in the United States. Since then, however, 
Mr. Albert Ladd Colby-states— 


The difficulties of their manufacture have been so thoroughly overcome that the 30 
per cent nickel steel, seamless, cold-drawn marine boiler tubes, now a commercial 
proposition, are made in practically the same number of operations and with but a 
slightly greater percentage of discard than customary in the manufacture of ordinary 
seamless tubes, and, furthermore, the finished 30 per cent nickel-steel tube will stand 
all the manipulating tests contained in the specifications of the Bureau of Steam 
Engineering, United States Navy Department, for the acceptance of the carbon-steel 
seamless cold-drawn marine boiler tubes now in use. In addition, the nickel-steel 
tubes have a much greater tensile strength. 

Although the first cost of the nickel-steel tubes for marine boilers 
is considerably in excess of the carbon-steel tubes, yet, on account of 
the longer life of the nickel-steel tubes, they are in the end cheaper than 
the others. At the present time 30 per cent nickel-steel tubes cost 
from 35 cents to 40 cents per pound, as compared with 12 cents to 15 
cents per pound for the corresponding mild carbon-steel tubes. Thus 
their initial cost, when used in the boilers of torpedo-boat destroyers, 
is 2.13 times as great as the other kind and 2.43 times as great when 
used in the boilers of battle ships, but the nickel-steel tubes will last 
two and one-third times longer than those made of the carbon steel, 
and when finally taken from the boilers they can be sold not only 
for the market price of steel-tubing scrap, but also at an additional 
price of 20 cents per pound for their nickel content. Thus it is seen 
that 30 per cent nickel-steel boiler tubes are really more economical 
to purchase than carbon-steel boiler tubes. 

In addition to marine boilers, high nickel-steel tubes can be used to 
advantage for stationary boilers, automobile boilers, and locomotive 
safe ends. It is the hig'lier elastic limit of the 30 per cent nickel-steel 
boiler tubing that will prevent the leaks which are constantly being- 
formed where the mild carbon-steel tube is used. The leaks are due 
to the expansion of the fine sheets when heated, which compress the 
tubes at the points where the} T pass through the flue sheets and cause 
in the case of the mild carbon-steel tube a permanent deformation; 
this results in the leakage and necessitates the frequent expanding of 
the tubes. In the high nickel-steel tubes this difficulty is overcome 


«Proc. 11th General Meeting Soc. Naval Arch, and Marine Eng., Nov. 19, 1903, 






THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


11 


by their higher elastic limit. This deformation and the resulting 
leakage are especiall} r true of locomotive boilers. For automobile 
tubular boilers a 23 to 25 per cent nickel-steel tubing is used, each 
coiled section being made from one long piece of nickel-steel tubing, 
which, by a special heat treatment, is enabled to withstand this bend¬ 
ing without cracking. 

Nickel-steel tubing containing 12 per cent of nickel has been used by 
the French since 1898 in the manufacture of axles, brake beams, and 
carriage transoms for field artillery wagons, and the desired result in 
the reduction of weight has been obtained without loss of strength 
and without stiffness of the wagons. A 5 per cent nickel-steel tubing 
has been used in the manufacture of bicycles since 1896. 

Much work and experimenting have been done on nickel steel; yet, 
on account of the wide range in physical properties of steels which con¬ 
tain from 2 to 15 per cent of nickel and or the variations which occur 
in each grade with varying quantities of carbon and with the addition 
of small quantities of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc., the 
further stud}^ of the alloys of nickel with iron is of great importance 
to the metallurgist who may be in search of a steel which will be 
adapted for certain particular purposes. One of the foremost men 
who has studied the ferro alloys and their application in the manufac¬ 
ture of steel is Mr. R. A. Hadfield, manager of the Hecla Works, 
Sheffield, England. The results of his investigations have been 
embodied in a series of very valuable publications. 


COBALT STEEL. 


Some experiments a have been made with cobalt in the manufacture 
of a ferro- cobalt which was used in making a cobalt steel. The pres¬ 
ence of cobalt in the steel considerably increased its elastic limit and 
its breaking load, but thus far no commercial use has been made of 
this steel. On account of its high price it is impossible for a cobalt 
steel to enter into competition with nickel steel, as the properties which 
cobalt gives to steel are not distinct enough to make it of more value 
than the corresponding nickel steel. 

The main use of cobalt, which is in the form of the oxide, is in manu¬ 
facturing pigments, the principal one being known as cobalt blue. 
As the demand for cobalt oxide is small, there could easily be an over¬ 
production of this compound. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLY. 

There is still but little nickel or cobalt mined in the United States, 
and the chief sources of supply of these metals are the large mines in 
the Sudbury district, Canada, and the mines of New Caledonia, an 


a Hadfield, R. A., Iron and Steel Metallurgist and Metallographist, January, 1904, p. 10. 





12 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


island belonging to France, in the Pacific Ocean off the east coast of 
Australia. 

/ 

An interesting occurrence of a cobalt-nickel ore has recently been 
discovered in Canada during the building of the Temiscaming and 
Northern Ontario Railroad. The deposits were found about 5 miles 
south of the village of Heileybury on the Ontario side of the northern 
part of Lake Temiscaming. They are about 90 miles northeast of the 
town of Sudbury, near which are situated the nickel mines referred to 
above. The ore of these new deposits is distinct from that of the Sud¬ 
bury district, and consists principally of the minerals smalltite, nic- 
colite, and satflorite. 

The International Nickel Company, which controls the largest 
deposits of nickel ore at Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, has recently remod¬ 
eled its entire plant at Copper Cliff and now has a most modern nickel- 
copper smelter. The ore which they are treating contains from 2 to 
5 per cent of nickel and from 1^ to 8 per cent of copper, and is a 
nickeliferous pyrrhotite. The general composition of the ores firom 
the various mines of the company is shown by the following analyses: 


Analyses of nickel ore from mines of the International Nickel Company, (a) 


Copper .... 

Nickel. 

Iron. 

Silica. 

Sulphur ... 

Total 


Constituent. 


Cliff mine. 

No. 2 mine. 

Creighton 

mine. 

8.05 

2.23 

1.69 

2.97 

3.35 

5.13 

26.21 

46.47 

45.70 

26. 05 

11.87 

9.65 

19. 08 

26.18 

27.79 

82. 36 

90.10 

89. 96 


a Chemist of Canadian Copper Company, Copper Cliff, Ontario, analyst. 


This ore is crushed ,at the mine and roasted in heaps, where it 
remains for about one hundred days, during which time the sulphur 
is reduced to about 10 per cent. At‘the end of this time the ore is in 
fine shape for the blast furnace, being in large lumps and very porous 
and free from water. It is conveyed from these roast heaps to the 
top of the pocket trestle in dump cars, where it is dumped down 
through the bottom of the pockets into 2-ton side-dump-charge cars 
and hauled to the furnaces by electric locomotives. In dumping the 
ore into the furnaces care is taken to keep the bright spots covered 
with charges of ore. In charging the furnaces 10 per cent of coke is 
used, and during the operation the metal content is raised from 7 to 
30 per cent. This could easily be increased to 10 or 50 per cent, but 
it seems more advantageous to produce a 30 per cent matte, adding- 
enough green ore to the charges to keep the tenor down to that point. 
By keeping the proportion of metal in the matte down to 30 per cent, 
a higher per cent of iron is retained in the matte, with a correspond- 




















THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


13 


ingly less quantity of oxidized iron for the slag, but, therefore, with 
higher percentage of silica in the slag. In order to obtain this reac¬ 
tion the proper adjustment of fuel and blast is an important governing 
factor. The composition of the ore is such that without any outside 
additions or flux a slag is obtained having a general composition as 
follows: 

Composition of slag from nickel smelting. 


Constituent. 


Per cent. 


Silica. 

Iron. 

Lime and magnesia 


29 

41 

10 


Total 


80 


Occasionally it is necessary to add a little pure quartz in order to 
keep the silica up to 29 per cent, which has been found to be the lowest 
safe economical quantity of silica to run. 

As the slag and matte run from the furnaces into the settlers the 


specific gravity of the slag is 3.78 and that of the 30 per cent matte is 
5.20, and consequently they can be separated very readily. 

The matte is tapped from the settler as needed, poured into a con¬ 
verter which has a siliceous lining, and blown. By this operation the 
sulphur goes off as sulphur dioxide, freeing the iron first, which unites 
with the silica of the lining and forms a slag. The danger point ap¬ 
proaches with the diminishing quantity of iron; for when the iron is 
exhausted, the nickel will be the next metal to go into the slag. The 
operation is therefore stopped while there is still from 1 to 2 per cent 
of iron in the matte and the tenor is 80 per cent nickel and copper, 
called “ white metal.” The matte formerly shipped from the Copper 
Cliffs smelter contained from 73 to 75 per cent metal. The new plant 
is producing an 80 per cent or better matte. It was for this purpose 
that the new plant was designed, namely, to reduce the cost of handling 
and smelting with the production of a higher grade matte rather than 
to increase the production itself. 


PRODUCTION. 


The main supply of nickel and cobalt produced in the United States 
is from Mine La Motte, Mo., where it is obtained as a by-product in 
lead smelting by the Mine La Motte Lead and Smelting Company. 
The production amounted in 1903 to 661 tons of matte. The nickel 
content of this matte was 114,200 pounds, valued at $45,900, and the 
cobalt oxide content was 120,000 pounds, valued at $228,000. Ibis 
is an increase in production of 108,452 pounds of nickel and of 116,270 
pounds of cobalt oxide, as compared with 5,748 pounds of nickel and 
3,730 pounds of cobalt oxide produced in 1902. 












14 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


The production of nickel and cobalt ores in the United States during 
1903 amounted to 135 tons, which were obtained from Oregon and 
Idaho during development work, and only 21 tons, valued at $1,900, 
were shipped. 

In the following table are shown the production and value of nickel 
obtained from domestic ores from 1887 to 1903, inclusive: 


Production of nickel f rom domestic ores in the United Sta tes , 1887-1903. 

[Pounds.] 


Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1887. 

205,566 

$133,200 

1888. 

204,328 

127,632 

1889. 

252,663 

151,598 

1890. 

223,488 

134,093 

1891. 

118,498 

71,099 

1892. 

92,252 

50, 739 

1893. 

49,399 

22,197 

1894. 

9,616 

3,269 

1895. 

10, 302 

3,091 


Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1896 . 

17,170 

$4,464 

1897 . 

23,707 

7,823 

1898 . 

11,145 

3, 956 

1899 . 

22,541 

8,566 

1900 . 

9, 715 

3,886 

1901. 

6,700 

3, 551 

1902 . 

5,748 

2,701 

1903 . 

114,200 

45,900 


In the table below is given the production of cobalt oxide in United 
States from domestic ores from 1869 to 1903, inclusive: 


Production of cobalt oxide in the United States, 1869-1903. 

[Pounds.] 


Year. 

Quantity. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

1869. 

811 

1881. 

8,280 

1893. 

8 422 

1870. 

3,854 

1882. 

11,653 

1894. 

6 763 

1871. 

5,086 

1883. 

1,096 

1895. 

14 458 

1872. 

5,749 

1884. 

2,000 

1896. 

10 700 

1873. 

5,128 

1885. 

8,423 

1897. 

19 520 

1874. 

4,145 

1886. 

8,689 

1898. 

6 247 

1875. 

3,441 

1887. 

a 18, 340 

1899.... 

10 230 

1876. 

5,162 

1888. 

8,491 

1900 

6 471 

1877. 

7,328 

1889. 

13,955 

1901... 

13 360 

1878. 

4,508 

1890. 

6,788 

1902.. 

3 730 

1879. 

4,376 

1891. 

7,200 

1903. 

120,000 

1880. 

7,251 

1892. 

7,869 







a Including cobalt oxide in ore and matte. 


CANADIAN PRODUCTION. 

As nearly all of the nickel used in the United States is obtained 
from Canada, with only a small amount from New Caledonia, a table 
is given below showing the quantity of nickel ore mined and smelted 
in Canada, together with the quantity of matte obtained from it, for 
the years 1896 to 1903, inclusive: 
























































































THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


15 


1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 


Production of nickel in Canada, 1896-1903. (a) 


Ore 

produced. 

Ore 

smelted. 

Matte 

obtained. 

Nickel in 
matte. 

Long tons. 

Long tons. 

Long tons. 

Pounds. 

109,097 

73,505 

9,733 

3,897,000 

93,155 

96,093 

14,034 

3,998,000 

123,920 

121,924 

21,101 

5,567,000 

203,118 

171,230 

19,215 

5,744,000 

216,695 

211,960 

23,448 

7,080,000 

326,945 

270,380 

45,134 

8,882,000 

269,538 

233,338 

24,691 

10,693,410 

136, 633 

209,030 

13,832 

12,505,510 


a As reported by the director of the bureau of mines, Ontario, Canada. 


IMPORTS. 

In the following tables are given the quantity and value of cobalt ' 
oxide and nickel imported into the United States, the larger part of the 
nickel being obtained from the Canadian mines. The quantity of nickel 
matte, etc., imported into the United States in 1903 was over 2,000,000 
pounds less than in 1902, but with an increase of over $50,000 in value. 
As compared with the imports of 1901, this is a decrease of over 
81,000,000 pounds in quantity but of only $355,000 in value. This 
decrease in quantity and relative increase in value is due to the high- 
grade matte that was shipped from the smelters to the refiners located 
in the United States. 

Cobalt oxide imported and entered for consumption in the United States, 1868-1903. 


Year ending— 


June 30— 


Oxide. 


Quantity. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1868 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874. 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

1880. 
1881. 
1882. 

1883. 

1884. 
1886. 


1,480 
1,404 
678 
4,440 
19,752 I 
2,860 
7,531 
9,819 
21,844 
17,758 
13,067 
25,963 
16,162 


87,208 
2,330 
5,019 
2,766 
4,920 
4,714 
5,500 
2,604 
11,180 
11,056 
8,693 
15, 208 
18,457 
13,837 
12,764 
22,323 
43, 611 
28,138 


Year ending— 


Dec. 31— 
1886 . 

1887.. 
1888 . 

1889 . 

1890 . 

1891 . 

1892.. 
1893 . 
1894. 

1895 . 

1896 . 

1897 . 

1898 . 

1899 . 

1900 . 

1901 . 

1902 .. 

1903 .. 


Oxide. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Pounds. 


19,366 

829,543 

26,882 

39,396 

27,446 

46,211 

41,455 

82,332 

33,338 

63,202 

23,643 

43,188 

32,833 

60,067 

28,884 

42,694 

24,020 

29,857 

36,155 

39,839 

27,180 

36,212 

24,771 

34,773 

33,731 

49,245 

46,791 

68,817 

54,073 

88,651 

71,969 

134,208 

79,984 

151,115 

73,350 

145,264 












































































16 


MINERAL RESOURCES 


Nickel imported and entered for consumption in the United States, 1868-1903. 


Year ending— 

Nickel. 

Nickel oxide, alloy of 
nickel with copper, 
and nickel matte. 

Total 

value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

June 30— 

Pounds. 

% 

Pounds. 



1868 


$118,058 



$118,058 

1869 


134,327 



134,327 

1870 


99,111 



99, 111 

1871. 

17,701 

48,133 

4,438 

$3,911 

52,044 

1872 

26,140 

27,144 



27,144 

1873 

2, 842 

4,717 



4,717 

1874 

3,172 

5,883 



5,883 

1875. 

1,255 

3,157 

12 

36 

3,193 

1876 . 



156 

10 

10 

1877. 

5,978 

9,522 

716 

824 

10,346 

1878. 

7,486 

8,837 

8,518 

7,847 

16, 684 

1879. 

10,496 

7,829 

8,314 

5,570 

13,399 

1880. 

38,276 

25,758 

61,869 

40,311 

66,069 

1881. 

17,933 

14,503 

135,744 

107,627 

122,130 

1882. 

22,906 

17,924 

177,822 

125,736 

143,660 

1883. 

19,015 

13,098 

161,159 

119,386 

132,484 

1884 . 



a 194, 711 

129,733 

129, 733 

1885 . . 



105,603 

64,166 

64,166 

December 31— 





1886. 



277,112 

141,546 

& 141,546 

1887. 



439,037 

205,232 

c 205,232 

1888. 



316,895 

138,290 

d 138,290 

1889. 



367,288 

156,33i 

«156,331 

1890. 

/ 566,571 

260,665 

247,299 

115,614 

376,279 

1891. 

355,455 

172,476 

g 10,245,200 

148,687 

321,163 

1892. 



h 4,487,890 

428,062 

428,062 

1893. 



h 12,427,986 

386,740 

386,740 

1894. 



h 9,286,733 

310,581 

310,581 

1895. 



h 20,355,749 

629,910 

629,910 

1896. 



h 23,718.411 

620, 425 

620,425 

1897. 



h 27,821,232 

781,483 

781.483 

1898. 



h 60,090,240 

1,534,262 

1,534,262 

1899. 



h 44,479,841 

1,216,253 

1,216,253 

1900. 



i 57,500,800 

1,183,884 

1,183,884 

1901. 



J117,364,337 

3 1,849,620 

1,849,620 

1902. 



k 33.942,710 

k 1,437,649 

1, 437,649 

1903. 



l 36,217,985 

1 1,493,889 

1,493,889 





«Including metallic nickel. 
b Including 8465 worth of manufactured nickel. 
c Including $879 worth of manufactured nickel. 
d Including $2,281 worth of manufactured nickel. 
e Including $131 worth of manufactured nickel. 

/Classified as nickel, nickel oxide, alloy of any kind in which nickel is the element or material of 
chief value. 

g Classified as nickel and nickel matte. 

h Includes all nickel imports except manufactures; nearly all of this is nickel in matte from Canada, 
containing about 20 per cent nickel. 

i Ore and matte. In addition 455,188 pounds of nickel, nickel oxide, etc., were imported, valued at 
$139,786. 

j Including $209,956, the value of imports of 635,697 pounds of nickel, nickel oxide, alloy, etc., and 
$2,498, the value of imported manufactures of nickel not specially provided for. 

fc Besides nickel ore and nickel matte, these figures include 752,630 pounds, valued at $251,149, of 
nickel, nickel oxide, and alloys in which nickel is the chief constituent of value, and $30,128, the 
value of manufactures of nickel not specially provided for. 

l Besides nickel ore and nickel matte, these figures include 521,345 pounds, valued at $170,670, of 
nickel, nickel oxide, alloy in which nickel is the material of chief value, and $37,284, the value of 
manufactures of nickel not specially provided for. 






























































17 


THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 

EXPORTS. 

As a very large part of the Canadian production of nickel matte is 
refined in this country, it would naturally be expected that there would 
be considerable nickel exported from the United States, and in 1903 
this amounted to 2,111,199 pounds, valued at $703,550. The quantity 
and value of nickel exported in the United States since 1891 are given 
in the following table: 


Exports of nickel oxide and matte from the United States, 1894-1903. 


Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1894 «. 

Pounds. 

1,235,588 
1,061,285 
2,756,604 
4,255,558 
5,657,620 

$247,568 
239,897 
600,833 
997,391 
1,359,609 

1899 . 

Pounds. 
5,004,377 
5,869,906 
5,869,655 
3,228,607 
2,414,499 

$1,151,454 
1,382,727 
1,521,291 
924,579 
703,550 

1895. 

1900 . 

1896. 

1901. 

1897. 

1902 . 

1898. 

1903 . 




« Latter six months; not separately classified prior to July 1, 1894. 


FOREIGN PRODUCTION. 

There is given in the following table the production of nickel in 
Canada, France, and Germany from 1889 to 1903 as far as the statis¬ 
tics could be obtained. The French production is from the New Cale¬ 
donia mines and the German from the New Caledonia and the 
Norwegian mines. In comparing this table with that of the nickel 
imported into the United States it must be borne in mind that the 
imports represent nickel matte, ore, etc., and not the metallic nickel, 
as is given in the table below. 


Production of nickel in Canada, France, and Germany, 1889-1903. 


Year. 

Canada. 

France. 

Germany. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 


Pounds. 


Metric tons. 


Metric tons. 


1889. 

830,477 

$498,286 

330 

$324,900 

282 

$279,680 

1890. 

1,435,742 

933,232 

330 

317,300 

434 

436,430 

1891. 

4,626,627 

2,775, 976 

330 

319,200 

594 

644,480 

1892. 

2,413,717 

1,399,956 

1,244 

1,174,580 

747 

698,630 

1893. 

3, 992,982 

2,076,351 

2,045 

1,175,720 

893 

774,630 

1894. 

4,907,430 

2,061,120 

1,545 

1,175,720 

522 

449,350 

1895. 

3,888,525 

1,360,984 

1,545 

1,033,220 

698 

575,890 

1896. 

3,397,113 

1,188,990 

1,545 

875,330 

822 

666,900 

1897. 

3,997,746 

1,399,137 

1,245 

704,425 

898 

710,980 

1898. 

5,517,690 

1,820,838 

1,540 

887,800 

1,108 

670,482 

1899. 

5,744,000 

2,067,840 

1,740 

1,003,600 

1,115 

669, 517 

1900. 

7,080,000 

3,327, 707 

1,700 

1 ,020,000 

1,376 

946, 884 

1901. 

9,189,047 

4, 594,523 

1,800 

1,440,000 

1,659 

1,184,263 

1902. 

10,693,410 

5,025,903 

1,600 

1,080,800 

1,605 

1,122,271 


12,505,510 

5,002,204 












































































18 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


CHROMIUM. 

The only mineral that is being mined as an ore of chromium is 
chromite, whose chemical composition is represented by the formula 
FeCr 3 0 4 . At the present time nearly all of this mineral that is used 
in the United States is imported, being obtained from Asiatic Turkey, 
New Caledonia, and Canada. The only State in the United States that 
is now producing any chromite is California. The North Carolina 
deposits, located near Burnsville, Yancey County, have recently been 
sold and are now being thoroughly developed. These deposits were 
formerly 20 miles from railroad transportation, which was prohibitory 
to their being worked; now, however, the railroad passes within 3 
miles of them. 

CHROMIUM STEEL. 

The largest use of chromium is in the manufacture of a ferro- 
chromium alloy which is used in the manufacture of chrome steel. 
In the manufacture of armor plate ferrochrome plays a very im¬ 
portant part, and, although it is sometimes used alone for giving 
hardness and toughness to the armor plate, it is more commonly used in 
combination with nickel, making a nickel-chromium steel armor plate. 
Other uses of chrome steel are in connection with five-ply welded 
chrome steel and iron plates for burglar-proof vaults, safes,' etc., and 
for castings that are to be subjected to unusually severe service, such 
as battery shoes and dies, wearing plates for stone crushers, etc. A 
higher chromium steel which is free from manganese will resist oxida¬ 
tion and the corrosive action of steam, fire, water, etc., to a considerable 
extent, and these properties make it valuable in the manufacture of 
boiler tubes. Chromium steel is also used to some extent as a tool 
steel, but for high-speed tools it is being largely replaced by tungsten 
steel, which seems to be especially adapted to this purpose. 

In the manufacture of chromium steel it has been found to be 
much more advantageous to use the ferrochromium alloy instead of 
the pure chromium metal, for the main reason that it is difficult to 
introduce chromium into a steel bath by using the metal, especially if 
it is free from carbon, as the pieces of chromium melt with great dif¬ 
ficulty, and they are apt to float on the bath. On the other hand, a 
ferrochromium alloy with low carbon is very fusible and becomes 
evenly distributed through the steel bath, thus making a purer and 
more homogeneous chromium steel. 

Ferrochromium is made in an electric furnace and is produced 
directly from the ore. In the United States the company producing 
the largest quantity of ferrochromium is the Wilson Aluminum Com¬ 
pany, whose electric furnaces are located at Kanawha Falls, W. Ya. 
Besides the manufacture of ferrochromium this company also makes 
ferrotungsten, ferromolybdenum, ferrosilicon, ferrovanadium, and 


THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


19 


ferrotitanium. The company obtains its chief supply of chrome ores 
from the Daghardi mines, in Asia Minor, and the Thiebargi mines, in 
New Caledonia. 

Typical analyses of the Turkish and New Caledonian ores which are 
imported by the Wilson Aluminum Company are as follows: 


Analyses of chromite ores.( a ) 


Constituent. 

Turkish 

ore. 

New Cale¬ 
donian ore. 

Chromic oxide. 

Per cent. 

50.30 

15.50 

13.10 

7.00 

j 14.10 

Per cent. 

54.50 

17.70 

11.00 

3.10 

\ 1.60 

1 8.00 

Ferrous oxide. 

Alumina. 

Silica. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Total. 

100 . 00 

95.90 



n Chemist of Wilson Aluminum Company, analyst. 


There are two grades of ferrochromium made from these ores, 
which are known as crystalline and solid. The crystalline ferro¬ 
chromium can be broken into very small pieces, and is often preferred 
by those who use it in small quantities and under comparatively low 
temperatures. The following tables of analyses illustrate the chem¬ 
ical composition of crystalline and solid ferrochromium: 

Analyses of crystalline ferrochromium alloys. ( a ) 


Constituent. 

1 . 

2 . 

Chromium. 

Per cent. 

67.000 

24.380 

.490 

.007 

.005 

8.050 

99. 932 

Per cent. 

68.000 

20.000 

1.250 

.199 

.007 

10. 500 

99. 956 

Iron. 

Silicon. 

Sulphur. 

Phosphorus. 

Carbon . 

Total. 



Chromium. 

Iron. 

Silicon. 

Sulphur ... 
Phosphorus 
Carbon .... 

Total 


« Chemist of Wilson Aluminum Company, analyst. 


Analyses of solid ferrochromium alloy. ( a ) 


Constituent. 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

Per cent. 

Per cent. 

Per ceryt. 

71.980 

70.070 

69.880 

22.610 

22.770 

24.010 

.550 

.430 

.540 

.061 

.089 

.078 

.008 

.009 

.008 

4.789 

6.601 

5.464 

99.998 

99.969 

99.980 


a Chemist of Wilson Aluminum Company, analyst. 


























































20 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


Ferrochromium has also been made by the Wilson Aluminum Com¬ 
pany from the chromium ores from the Black Lake district, Quebec 
Province, Canada. 

The analysis of the ore used was as follows: 

Partial analysis of chromium ore from Black Lake district, Quebec, Canada. ( a ) 


Constituent. 


Chromic oxide 
Ferrous oxide . 

Silica. 

Magnesia. 

Total 


a Chemist of Wilson Aluminum Company, analyst. 


Per cent. 


50.00 
19.50 
4.90 
11.00 

85.40 


From this ore there was obtained a ferro-chromium alloy having the 
following chemical composition: 

Analysis of ferrochromium alloy obtained from Black Lake ore. ( a ) 


Constituent. 

Per cent. 

Chromium. 

60.00 

Iron. 

28. 60 

Silicon. 

.50 

Carbon . 

4. 90 

Total. 

100.00 



a Chemist of Wilson Aluminum Company, analyst. 


The Wilson Aluminum Company has been supplying the ferro¬ 
chromium used by the Bethlehem and the Carnegie steel companies 
for the armor plates, which these companies have manufactured for 
the Governments of the United States, Russia, and Japan. 

In connection with the chemical composition of the ferrochromium 
allo} r it may be of interest to give analyses of some of the ferrochro- 
miums made by the George G. Blackwell, Sons & Co., of Liverpool, 
England. This company makes two distinct grades of ferrochro¬ 
mium, one of which is very low in carbon. The two following* 
analyses, which were made by Dr. George Tate, of London, represent 
their standard ferrochromium. 
























THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


21 


Analyses of Blackwell ferrochromium. a 


Constituent. 

1 . 

2 . 


Per cent. 

Per cent. 

Chromium. 

64.050 

63 600 

Iron. 

25.450 

24 190 

Silicon . 

1.880 

1.500 

Sulphur. 

.046 

005 

Phosphorus . 

.025 

.030 

Carbon . 

8.550 

9.830 

Manganese. 

Trace. 

.216 

U ndetermined. 


.621 

Total. 

100.001 

100.262 





This company is also making what it calls a relined ferrochromium 
which is low in carbon and contains from 62 to 68 per cent of chromium; 
it is of two qualities, known as No. 1 and No. 2. The No. 2 quality 
contains a higher percentage of carbon than the No. 1, but it is still 
considerably lower in carbon than the ordinary ferrochromium, and 
can be sold at a cheaper rate than the No. 1. The general composition 
of these two ferrochromiums is represented by the analyses given 
below: 

Partial analyses of Blackwell ferrochromiums. a 


Constituent. 

i. 

2 . 

r.hrnminm ___ . _ .... 

Per cent. 

62.00 to 68.00 

Per cent. 

62. 000 to 68.000 

Pfl rhnn ..- - 

.50 to 1.00 

1.500 to 2.500 

Silienn . 

. 20 to . 25 

. 200 to . 300 

Snlnhnr 

. 05 to . 08 

. 080 to . 150 

PhnQnhnrns 

. 01 to . 05 

. 015 to . 020 


Trace. 

Trace. 





62.76 to 69.38 

63.795 to 70.970 





Another ferrochrome alloy that is manufactured by the George G. 
Blackwell, Sons & Co., contains 74.5 per cent of chromium, 23.8 per 
cent of iron, 1 to 3 per cent of carbon, and 0.2 of silicon. This ferro¬ 
chrome alloy has been made especially for use in the manufacture of 
chromium steel to be used in the manufacture of tools. 

The percentage of chromium that is used in the chromium steels 
varies from 2.5 to about 5 per cent and the carbon from 0.8 to 2 per 
cent. As a chromium steel free from carbon does not harden, it would 
seem that a certain per cent of carbon is essential in order for the 
chromium to give the desired hardening action to the steel, which is 
very energetic when this small amount of carbon is present. It may 
be that the chromium causes the formation of a very hard iron carbide, 
or double carbides of iron and chromium. The hardness, toughness, 
and stiffness which are obtained in chromium steel are very essential 


a Chemist of George G. Blackwell Sons & Co., analyst. 












































22 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


qualities, and are what make this steel especialty beneficial for the 
manufacture of armor-piercing projectiles as well as of armor plate. 
For projectiles chromium steel has thus far given better satisfaction 
than any of the other special steels, and is practically the only steel 
that is used for this purpose. The value of chromium steel for this 
purpose is well brought out b}^ Mr. R. A. Hadfield, manager of the 
Hecla Works, Sheffield, England, who states 0 that a 6-inch armor¬ 
piercing shot made by his firm was fired at a 9-inch compound plate, 
which it perforated unbroken. It was then fired again from the same 
gun and perforated a second plate of the same thickness, the shot still 
remaining unbroken. 

OTHER USES OF CHROMITE. 

Chromite is used quite extensivelv in the manufacture of chromium 
salts for pigments, and also to some extent in the manufacture of 
chrome bricks. These chrome bricks are used in smelting furnaces and 
open-hearth steel furnaces, and in the lower parts of soaking pits. In 
the construction of steel furnaces and smelters a chromium brick, 
being a neutral one, is used to separate the magnesia brick, which is 
a base, and the silica brick, which is acid. They are also used in the 
back part of the uptakes of the port ends in order to neutralize or 
prevent the eating action of the slag that comes over in the form of 
cinders. In the soaking pits their use is to counteract the eating 
effect of the scales that drop off the steel billets when they are heated. 
These bricks are manufactured by the Harbison-Walker Refractories 
Company, of Pittsburg, Pa., which makes them in all shapes desired. 

PRODUCTION. 

There is only one State—California—that produced any chromite 
during 1903, the quantity being 150 long tons, valued at $2,250, as 
against the production of 315 long tons, valued at $1,567, in 1902. 
This is a decrease of 165 tons in quantity and of $2,317 in value. In 
the following table is given the production of chromite in the United 
States since 1885: 


Production of chromite, 1885-1903. 


Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Year. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1885. 

Long tons. 
2,700 
2,000 
3,000 
1,500 
2,000 
3,599 
1,372 
1,500 
1,450 
3,680 

$40,000 
30,000 
40,000 
20,000 
30,000 
53, 985 
20,580 
25,000 
21,750 
53,231 

1895. 

Long tons. 
1,740 

786 

$16,795 
6,667 

1886. 

1896 . 

1887. 

1897 . 

1888. 

1898 . 



1889. 

1899 . 



1890. 

1900 . 

140 

368 

315 

150 

1,400 
5,790 
4,567 
2,250 

1891. 

1901. 

1892. 

1902 . 

1893. 

1903 . 

1894. 




a The Iron and Steel Metallurgist and Metallographist, January, 1904, p. 8. 






































THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS 


23 


IMPORTS. 

The largest quantity of chromite used in the United States is 
imported from Turkey, with smaller quantities from New Caledonia 
and Canada. Besides the chrome ore, there is also considerable chro¬ 
mate and bichromate of potash and chromic acid imported. Prior to 
1884 there was little or no chromite imported, and the supply was 
obtained from Maryland and Pennsylvania. Since then, however, the 
importation of this ore has been steadily increasing. In the following 
table are shown the quantity and value of chrome ore and chromate 
and bichromate of potash and chromic acid imported and entered for 
consumption in the United States since 1867: 


Chromate and bichromate of potash, chromic acid, and chrome ore imported and entered 

for consumption in the United States, 1867-1903. 


Year ending— 

Chromate and bichro¬ 
mate of potash. 

Chromic acid. 

Chrome ore. 

Total 

value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

June 30— 

Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Long tons. 



1807 

875,205 

$88,787 





$88, 787 

1868 

777,855 

68,634 





68,634 

1869 

877,432 

78,288 


$3 



78,291 

1870 

1,235,946 

127,333 


8 



127,341 

1871 

2,170,473 

223, 529 


5 



223, 534 

1872 

1,174,274 

220, 111 

514 

49 



220,160 

1873 

1,121,357 

178,472 

922 

276 



178, 748 

1874 

1,387,051 

218,517 

44 

13 



218,530 

1875 

1 417,812 

183,424 

45 

22 



183,446 

1876 

1,665,011 

175, 795 

120 

45 



175,840 

1877 

2 471,669 

264,392 

13 

10 



264,402 

1878 

1 929,670 

211,136 

32 

35 



211,171 

1879 

2 624,403 

221,151 





221,151 

1880 

3 505,740 

350,279 

5 

3 



350,282 

1881 

4 404,237 

402,088 

124 

89 



402,177 

1882 

2 449 875 

261,006 

52 

42 



261,048 

1883 

1 990 140 

208,681 

290 

338 



209,019 

1884 

2,593,115 

210,677 


120 

2,677 

$73,586 

284,383 

1885 

1,448,539 

92,556 


39 

12 

239 

92,834 

December 31— 







1886 

1,985,809 

139,117 


101 

3,356 

43,721 

182,939 

1887 

1,722,465 

120,305 


5,571 

1,404 

20,812 

146,688 

1888 

1,755,489 

143,312 


281 

4,440 

46,735 

190,328 

1889 

1,580,385 

137,263 


2,974 

5,474 

50,782 

191,019 

1890 

1,304,185 

113,613 


634 

4,353 

57, 111 

171,358 

1891. 

755,254 

55,897 

634 

203 

4,459 

108,764 

164,864 

1892. 

496,972 

94,055 

772 

204 

4, 930 

55,579 

149,838 

1893. 

976,706 

78,981 

3,708 

641 

6,354 

58,629 

138,251 

1894. 

1,483,762 

125,796 

5,680 

837 

3,470 

38,364 

164,997 

1895. 

2,045,910 

181,242 

2,083 

414 

5,230 

82,845 

264, 501 

1896. 

952, 794 

80,538 

2,429 

387 

8,669 

187,400 

268,325 

1897. 

1,329,473 

108,497 

71,220 

5,457 

11,570 

# 187,439 

301,393 

1898. 

1,160, 710 

86,134 

5,329 

1,758 

16,304 

272,234 

360,126 

1899. 

1,130,965 

73,510 

33,134 

6,360 

15,793 

284,825 

364,695 

1900. 

111,761 

7,758 

35,452 

7,232 

17,542 

305,001 

319,991 

1901. 

430, 996 

29,224 

53,462 

10,861 

20,112 

363,108 

403,193 

1 Qf)2 . 



90,817 

11,115 

39,570 

582,597 

593,712 

1 Qf)Q 

a 227,215 

32,174 



22,932 

292,025 

324,199 








a Includes a small amount of chromic acid, not reported separately. 
































































































24 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


As is seen from this table, there was a large falling oft in the quan¬ 
tity of chrome ore imported during 1903 as compared with 1902. 

CANADIAN PRODUCTION. 

The Canadian chromite deposits which are located in the vicinity of 
Black Lake and Colraine, Quebec Province, again became producers 
of this mineral in 1902, when the production amounted to 000 short 
tons, valued at $13,000, which in 1903 had increased to 3,383 tons, 
valued at $33,830. Most of this chromite was shipped to the United 
States. 

TUNGSTEN. 

Owing to the many inquiries that have been made for tungsten ores 
there has been an unusual amount of prospecting for them during 1903, 
with the result that many new localities have been discovered where 
these ores are found in greater or less quantity. Thus far, however, 
none of the new deposits have been developed sufficiently to determine 
the actual amount of ore that they contain. It was found impossible 
during the latter part of 1903 to till orders for 100 tons per month of 
tungsten ore, and none of the producers of these ores were willing to 
contract to furnish this quantity at the price quoted of $180 to $200 
per ton for a 60 to 65 per cent ore. 

The principal mining for tungsten ores during 1903 was in Colorado 
and in the vicinity of Dragoon, Ariz. These latter deposits have been 
developed quite extensively by the Primos Chemical Company. The 
ore consists principally of hiibnerite, with very small quantities of 
scheelite, and is easily concentrated, giving a product containing from 
70 to 72 per cent of tungstic acid. The deepest work done on the 
property is 100 feet below the surface, and to this depth the ledges 
continue firm. Nearly all of the ore that has been taken out during 
the development work has been concentrated and used in the manu¬ 
facture of ferrotungsten or of metallic tungsten. An average analysis 
of the concentrates from this ore is as follows: 


Analysis of tungsten ore from Dragoon, Ariz.( a ) 


Constituent. 

Per cent. 

Tungstic acid. 

70 22 

Silica. 

30 


1 90 

• 

Manganese. 

19 82 

Lime. 

4 87 

Magnesia. 

3 40 

Total. 

100. 51 



a Primos Chemical Company, Primos, Pa. 


















THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


25 


The tungsten property, located near Osceola, White Pine County, 
Nev., was bonded during 1903, and development work was carried on 
to determine what production per month could be made from these 
deposits. 

TUNGSTEN STEEL. 


The demand for tungsten ores for use in the manufacture of ferro- 
tungsten to be used in the manufacture of tungsten steel continues to 
increase, especially from abroad. Tungsten steel is used to some extent 
more generally abroad than in the United States, in the manufacture 
of armor plate and armor-piercing projectiles. For this purpose it is 
used in combination either with nickel or chromium, or with both of 
these metals. 

The use for which tungsten steel seems to be best adapted is in the 
manufacture of high-speed tools and magnet steels. The property 
that tungsten imparts to the steel is that of hardening in the air after 
forging and without recourse to the usual methods of tempering, such 
as immersion in oil, water, or some special solution. For high-speed 
tools tungsten steel is especially adapted, as it retains its hardness and 
cutting edge even at the temperature developed in the use of these 
high-speed tools. The value of tungsten steel for permanent magnets 
is on account of it retaining comparatively strong magnetism and of 
the permanence of this magnetism in the steel. This property makes 
the tungsten steel particularly desirable in instrument work where the 
calibration of the instrument depends upon the permanence of the 
magnet used. For compass needles tungsten steel has been used by 
W. and L. E. Gurley with entire satisfaction. 

Ferrotungsten is manufactured like ferrochrome by reducing the 
ores directly in an electric furnace. These alloys vary in their tungsten 
content from 30 to 80 per cent, according to the purpose for which the 
ferrotungsten is to be used. The composition of some of these ferro- 
tungstens on the market are shown in the table of analyses below, 
No. 1 being a ferrotungsten manufactured by the Wilson Aluminum 
Company, of Kanawha Falls, W. Va., and No. 2, by George G. Black- 
well, Sons & Co., of Liverpool, England. 


Analyses of ferrotungsten. 


Constituent. 


1 . 


2 . 


Tungsten.. 

Iron. 

Carbon .... 

Silicon. 

Phosphorus 


Pep cent. 
83.90 
12.10 
3.30 
.50 


Sulphur 


Per cent. 
78.80 
10.90 
3.20 
1.87 
.10 
.11 


Total 


99.80 


94.98 



















26 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


The Blackwell Company also manufactures a tungsten-nickel alloy 
containing 73 to 75 per cent tungsten, 23 to 25 per cent nickel, 2 to 2.5 
per cent iron, 0.75 to 1 per cent carbon, and 0.25 to 0.50 per cent 
silicon. 

The quantity of tungsten that is used in tungsten steel varies from 
3 to 10 per cent, and is occasionally as much as 24 per cent; but the 
percentage is usually nearer the lower figure. The carbon varies from 
0.4 to 2 per cent. The Taylor-White tungsten-steel contains from 3 
to 4 per cent of chromium, and is made in two grades, one for cutting 
soft steel and gray cast iron and the other for cutting hard steel. 
The tungsten content in both grades remains constant, but there is 3 
per cent of chromium in the grade use for cutting soft steel and 4 per 
cent in that used for cutting hard steel. The following analysis rep¬ 
resents the composition of these two grades of tungsten steel: 


Composition of the grades of Taylor- White tungsten steel. 


Constituent. 

For cutting 
hard steel. 

For cutting soft 
st el. 

Tungsten. 

Per cent. 

8.50 

4.00 

1.25 

Per cent. 

8.50 

3.00 

0. 75 to 1.00 

Chromium. 

Carbon. 

Total. 

13.75 

12.25 to 12.50 



Tools made from these steels retain their cutting power even when 
the friction is so great that the edge of the tool becomes red-hot. 

Prof. Heniy M. Howe,° gives the composition of many of the self¬ 
hardening tungsten steels as lying within the following limits: 

General composition of tungsten steel. 


Constituent. 

Per cent. 

Tungsten. 

3.44 to 24.00 

.00 to 6.00 

.40 to 2.19 

.21 to 3.00 

Chromium. 


Silicon. 


Total. 

4.05 to 35.19 



There is considerable variation in the opinion of the various steel 
makers as to the value of tungsten in the manufacture of armor plate. 
As is well known, it is used to some extent at the present time by the 
European steel manufacturers for armor plate. In combination with 
nickel and chromium, it will undoubtedly give results equal to the 
nickel and chromium steels. Some of the manufacturers go as far as 
to say that a tungsten steel will make better armor plate than either 


"Iron, Steel, and Other Alloys, 1903, p. 324. 































THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


27 


nickel or chromium steel. Two of the main objections to the use of 
tungsten steel at the present time for this purpose are the scarcity of 
the supply and its higher cost. 

PRODUCTION. 

The production of crude tungsten ores in the United States during 
1903 was 2,451 short tons. 

Most of this ore was concentrated, and there were sold 292 short 
tons of concentrates, valued at $43,639, which is approximately $149 
per ton. The prices varied from $110 to $250 per ton, according to 
the percentage of tungstic acid. This production was obtained 
from Colorado, Arizona, and Connecticut, given in the order of the 
importance of their output. 

IMPORTS. 

During the last two years there have been imported into the United 
States small quantities of tungsten ores and tungsten alloys. In 1903 
the imports of ferro-tungsten-chrome alloy amounted to $18,136 in 
value, and in 1902 the value of the imports of tungsten ore and allo}'S 
was $7,046. Tungsten ores are admitted free of duty. 

MOLYBDENUM. 

The use of molybdenum steel continues to increase, and hence there 
is an increasing demand for the ores of this metal. The main use of 
ferromolybdenum is in the manufacture of a tool steel. The proper¬ 
ties which molybdenum gives to steel are very similar to those given by 
tungsten, the main difference being that it requires a smaller quantity 
of molybdenum than of tungsten to obtain the same results. Ferro¬ 
molybdenum is produced, like ferrotungsten, by reducing it from the 
ore in an electric furnace. There are now two molybdenum-nickel alloys 
being produced, one of which contains 75 per cent molybdenum and 25 
per cent nickel, and the other 50 per cent molybdenum and 50 per cent 
nickel. Besides these constituents the alloy contains from 2 to 2.5 per 
cent iron, 1 to 1.5 per cent carbon, and 0.25 to 0.50 per cent silicon. 
The molybdenum steel which is made from these alloys is recommended 
for large cranks and propeller-shaft forgings, for large guns, rifle 
barrels, and for wiring and for boiler plates. The molybdenum 
increases the elongation of steel very considerably, and for wire draw¬ 
ing such an increase at a comparatively small cost is important. 

There are many localities where molybdenum ores occur in quan¬ 
tity, but, owing to the uncertainty of the value of the concentrates, 
many of these properties still remain undeveloped. The year 1903, 
however, saw a great deal of prospecting for these ores, with the 
result that a number of new localities were discovered that give prom¬ 
ise of developing into large deposits. Wulfenite was discovered on 


28 


MINERAL RESOURCES 


the property of the Troy-Manhattan Copper Company, at Troy, Ariz., 
and after the deposit was opened and developed the company erected 
a 40-ton concentrating mill and is now preparing the concentrates for 
market. 

The deposit of molybdenum at Cooper, Me., has been developed 
very extensively by the American Molybdenum Company, and during 
the last year the company has erected a cleaning and concentrating 
plant for treating this ore. Other properties that were partly devel¬ 
oped in 1903 are as follows: 

One mile east of Climax, Summit County, Colo., on the north side 
of Bartlett Mountain, a deposit of moybdenum has been developed by 
Mr. H. Leal, of Cresco, Nebr. Mr. T. L. Quigley, of Ophir, Mont., 
has located a deposit of molybdenum about 2 miles east of Orphir, in 
Carpenters Gulch. Another deposit near Dillon, Mont., has been 
developed by Mr. L. D. Graeter. The molybdenum mines of the 
Crown Point Mining Company, in Chelan County, Wash., produced 
some very large clusters of crystals of molybdenum during 1903, which 
were sold. One large crystal, or cluster of crystals, weighed 300 
pounds. 

At the Mammoth mine, Mammoth, Ariz., work was continued by 
Mr. Charles Eudall, of Tucson, in separating the wulfenite from the 
old tailings of this mine. 

PRODUCTION. 

The production of molybdenite ore during 1903 amounted to about 
6,200 tons of crude ore, very little of which was treated and most of 
which is still lying on the dumps. Most of the wulfenite ore that was 
mined was concentrated, and these concentrates, together with the con¬ 
centrates of the molybdenite, amounted to about 795 short tons, valued 
at $60,865. There is still wide variation reported in the prices of 
molybdenite ore, which range from $100 to $3,000 per ton. It is 
more than probable that the actual value of molybdenum concentrates 
at New York will be in the neighborhood of $200 per ton. 

URANIUM A]ST) YANADIUM. 

VANADIUM STEEL. 

On account of the extremely high price and scarcity of vanadium 
ores, the metal has thus far been employed very little in the manufac¬ 
ture of ferrovanadium for use in the production of vanadium steel. 
It is claimed b}^ many that the beneficial properties imparted to steel 
by vanadium exceed those of any of the other steel-hardening metals. 
These are exaggerated statements, but it may be found that smaller 
quantities of vanadium will give in some cases the same results that 
are obtained by comparatively large quantities of the other metals. 
One property claimed for vanadium steel is that it acquires its maxi- 


THE STEEL-HARDENING METALS. 


29 


mum of hardness not by sudden cooling, but by annealing at a tem¬ 
perature of from 700° to 800° C. This property would be particularly 
advantageous for high-speed tool steel and for points of projectiles. 
There is, however, at the present time little or no vanadium steel on 
the market and no special production of ferrovanadium alloys. Since 
the discovery of the deposits of vanadium in Colorado and Utah they 
have been thoroughly developed, largely through the efforts of Mr. 
A. B. Frenzel, of Denver, Colo. He has also made experiments in 
the reduction of these ores, and now claims that a process has been 
perfected by which vanadium can be obtained at such prices that the 
ferrovanadium alloy can be manufactured so as to enter into compe¬ 
tition with the other ferro alloys. The main source of supply of 
vanadium is Montrose County, Colo. These ores also contain more or 
less uranium and are mined for both metals. 

URANIUM. 

Experiments have been made with ferrouranium as to the value of 
the qualities that it gives to steel. Although it increases the stiffness 
and the toughness of steel to a considerable degree, these qualities are 
not distinct enough from the like qualities imparted to steel by other 
metals to warrant the use of ferrouranium for this purpose when its 
much higher cost is considered. The principal use of this compound 
is as a pigment in the manufacture of porcelain and glass. 

PRODUCTION. 

During 1903 there was considerable development work done upon 
uranium and vanadium deposits, which resulted in the production of 
432 short tons of crude ore. Of this amount 30 tons of partially con¬ 
centrated ore, valued at $5,625, were sold. In 1902 the production of 
uranium and vanadium minerals, as reported to the Survey, amounted 
to 3,810 tons, valued at $48,125. The 1903 production consists prin¬ 
cipally of the mineral carnotite, with a small amount of uranium. 

IMPORTS. 

Nearly all of the uranium and vanadium ores mined in the United 
States are exported. On the other hand, there is imported each year 
a considerable quantity of uranium and vanadium salts, which in 1903 
were valued at $13,498, as against imports to the value of $12,491 in 
1902. 

TITANIUM. 

The actual commercial value of titanium as a steel-hardening metal 
has not been thoroughly demonstrated. Experiments have shown that 
from 0.5 to 3 per cent of titanium increases the transverse strength 
and the tensile strength of steel to a very considerable degree. 


30 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


Until the development of the electric furnace it was practically impos¬ 
sible to produce either titanium or an alloy of iron and titanium, but 
since the introduction of this furnace ferrotitanium can be produced 
directly from the ores. The fusing point of ferrotitanium is materially 
affected by its titanium content, and it is impracticable to fuse an alloy 
containing over 12 per cent of titanium in connection with cast iron in 
a cupola. Up to this point, however, no difficulty arises in fusing the 
alloy and incorporating the titanium in the iron. It is to the manu¬ 
facture of a special cast iron that ferrotitanium seems to be especially 
adapted. The titanium in the iron gives greater density to the metal, 
greatly increases its transverse strength, and gives a harder chill or 
wearing quality to a wheel made from such an iron. For the manu¬ 
facture of car wheels it would seem that the titanium iron would be 
especially useful. 

A ferrotitanium has been manufactured by the Wilson Aluminum 
Company from a titanic iron ore from Caldwell County, N. C., which 
has the following composition: 

Analysis of North Carolina titanic iron ore. 


Constituent. 


Per cent. 


Titanium oxide 
Ferrous oxide.. 

Alumina. 

Silica. 


42.00 
38.00 
11. 50 
7.50 


Total 


99.00 


This company has also made, from rutile mined in Nelson Count}^, 
Va., ferrotitanium which contained from 95 to 99 percent of titanium 
oxide. 


O 















































































































1904 


*~r, 

trl W 







fig 


f Vv' 


■to. 

jr*r 




